By Saker El Nour

As climate-smart agriculture, agroecology, and nature-based solutions compete for dominance in African policy spaces, are we witnessing transformation—or just a new face of corporate control?

Food Systems on the Climate Frontline

Climate change is reshaping food systems worldwide, but its impacts are felt most acutely in the Global South. Events like the 2022 floods in Pakistan devastated agriculture and livestock, amplifying losses and deepening food insecurity (IPCC, 2023).

Africa is central to this crisis. The continent holds 60% of the world’s potentially cultivable land (Oxford Business Group, 2023), making it a battleground for land access and global food supply debates. In sub-Saharan Africa, women sustain the agri-food system, managing most smallholder farms and providing a majority of local food production. Similarly, in India, agriculture remains a lifeline for millions, particularly the poor (Maity et al., 2023).

For decades, agriculture was sidelined in UN climate debates. Only after the 2011 Durban COP did food systems gain recognition as both highly vulnerable and essential to climate mitigation and adaptation (Hrabanski & Le Coq, 2022).

At the heart of today’s debates are three competing frameworks:

• Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)
• Agroecology
• Nature-Based Solutions (NbS)

Competing Visions for Climate-Resilient Agriculture

Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)

Endorsed by the FAO and World Bank, CSA promises a “triple win”: higher productivity, climate resilience, and reduced emissions (FAO, 2010). But critics argue it is technocratic—focused on seeds, fertilizers, and technologies—while ignoring land rights, labor relations, and food sovereignty (Shilomboleni, 2022).

Agroecology

Agroecology is at once a science, a practice, and a movement. Rooted in local knowledge and biodiversity, it emphasizes sustainability and food sovereignty (Altieri, 2002). It has been championed by La Via Campesina and other social movements. Yet, some argue it risks romanticizing smallholders and overlooking class divisions among farmers (Bernstein, 2024).

Nature-Based Solutions (NbS)

NbS focus on protecting and restoring ecosystems to address climate challenges (Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016). They overlap with agroecology but are often promoted by institutions like the IUCN and World Bank. Critics warn that NbS can be co-opted into conservation programs that neglect local communities and smallholders (Seddon et al., 2020).

Comparing the Frameworks

Aspect	Agroecology	Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)	Nature-Based Solutions (NBS)
Aims	Safeguard, rehabilitate, and enhance agricultural and food systems to withstand climate-induced disruptions and pressures.	Sustainably increase productivity and resilience, reduce greenhouse gases, and enhance food security. (FAO, 2010)	Uses ecosystem services to tackle societal challenges, benefiting well-being and biodiversity.
Concept Appearance in International Sphere	First coined in 1928, gained prominence in the 1980s at the University of California & La Via Campesina in 1993.	Emerged in the 2000s with contributions from the FAO, World Bank, and universities.	Supported initially by the World Bank in the 2000s, later endorsed by the IUCN.
Shared Principled Beliefs	Stresses empirical, inclusive research for sustainable resource management and biodiversity, backing small-scale farmers and food sovereignty.	Connects food security with climate adaptation and mitigation.	Views nature as offering cost-effective solutions for climate mitigation and adaptation.
Shared Causal Beliefs or Professional Judgment	Advocates for agrarian sustainability enhance key functions across food systems by building synergies, supporting production, and multiple ecosystem services.	Suggests a variety of agroindustrial production models can be ecological if integrating certain practices.	Often more cost-effective and flexible than traditional infrastructure, favoring climate mitigation/adaptation.
Relationship with Agribusiness	Frequently in opposition to agribusiness, challenging industrialized practices.	May align with agribusiness interests when integrating sustainable practices.	May align or conflict with agribusiness, dependent on ecological priorities.

Source: based on Hrabanski and Le Coq, 2022, Wezel, et al., 2009; Altieri 2002; Coolsaet, 2016 And FAO, 2010.

The Politics of CSA: AGRA’s Role

The Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), backed by the Gates and Rockefeller Foundations, promotes CSA across the continent. Its model mirrors the input-intensive Green Revolution: improved seeds, fertilizers, and market integration (Rockefeller Foundation, 2006; Toenniessen et al., 2008).

Critics argue this promotes agribusiness over farmers’ needs (Holt-Giménez et al., 2012). The African Continental Free Trade Area’s seed regulations raise fears of corporate control and erosion of farmers’ rights (Zaitchik, 2023).

Civil society voices, including the Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA), have denounced AGRA as “greenwashing” industrial agriculture (Vicedom & Wynberg, 2024). Independent evaluations show AGRA has failed to reduce hunger, with food insecurity rising by 30% in target countries (Mkindi et al., 2020; Wise, 2020; Blair et al., 2021).

Toward Just and Ecological Futures

The food–climate nexus cannot be reduced to technical fixes. CSA and NbS often align with neoliberal frameworks that prioritize markets and agribusiness. By contrast, agroecology challenges this model, advocating food sovereignty, biodiversity, and local knowledge.

Africa’s agricultural transition must be just and ecological, recognizing power structures that shape policy, funding, and implementation. Re-centering the voices of **smallholders—especially women—**and prioritizing ecological justice is essential for building resilient futures.

References

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Bernstein, H. (2024). [Critique of agroecology’s class simplification]. [Forthcoming].

Blair, R., Kimbugwe, K., Koleros, A., Mangheni, M., Narayan, T., & Usmani, F. (2021). Partnership for Inclusive Agricultural Transformation in Africa (PIATA), Final Evaluation Report. United States Right to Know. https://usrtk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/PIATA-Final-Evaluation-Report-Volume-II.pdf

Cohen-Shacham, E., Walters, G., Janzen, C., & Maginnis, S. (2016). Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges. IUCN.

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Vicedom, S., & Wynberg, R. (2024). Power and networks in the shaping of the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA). Third World Quarterly, 45(3), 567–588. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2023.2240706

Wezel, A., Bellon, S., Doré, T., Francis, C., Vallod, D., & David, C. (2009). Agroecology as a science, a movement and a practice: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 29(4), 503–515. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro/2009004

Wise, T. A. (2020). Failing Africa’s farmers: An impact assessment of the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa. Tufts University. https://sites.tufts.edu/gdae/files/2020/07/20-01_Wise_FailureToYield.pdf

Zaitchik, A. (2023, September 18). The new colonialist food economy. The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/world/new-colonialist-food-economy/